Nanografi Nanotechnology

Cerium(Ce) is the one of rare earth metals with atomic number 58. Cerium is a malleable, soft, ductile, iron-grey metal, slightly harder than lead. The commercial-grade cerium is iron-gray in color. Cerium is very reactive element that readily tarnishes in air, slowly oxidizes in cold water and rapidly in hot water. It could be burned when heated or scratched with a knife. Cerium dissolves in acids. Cerium was first found by Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger in Sweden in 1803, and independently by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Germany. However, cerium was isolated in 1839 by Carl Gustav Mosander. Cerium was named for the asteroid Ceres, which was discovered in 1801. Cerium is found in many minerals, but the main sources of cerium are monazite and bastnasite. The pure cerium is prepared metallothermic technique reducing cerium fluoride by calcium, or using electrolysis of molten cerium chloride. Cerium is interesting due to its variable electric structure. Cerium is the most ab...

Dysprosium(Dy) is one of lanthanide elements with an atomic number 66. Dysprosium is a bright, soft, silvery-white rare earth metal. Dysprosium metal readily burns to form dysprosium oxide (Dy 2 O 3 ), vigorously reacts with halogens forming dysprosium halides. Because dysprosium is a little electropositive it slowly reacts with cold water resulting in dysprosium hydroxide. Dysprosium was discovered by French chemist Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886 as impurity in erbia. However, dysprosium was isolated in 1906 by another French chemist Georges Urbain. Only in 1950 pure dysprosium was produced when ion-exchange technique was developed. Dysprosium name comes from Greek word “dysprositos”, meaning hard to obtain. Boisbaudran made his own procedure of separation, which was intricate and time-consuming one. While this procedure was being made 32 precipitations of hydroxide and 26 another precipitations of insoluble oxalate salts resulted. Dysprosium has less applications compared...

Yttrium (Y) is the rare earth metals that has an atomic number 39. Yttrium is a soft, silver-metallic, lustrous and highly crystalline transition metal. Yttrium is also the first d-block element in the 5 th  period. This element was discovered in Ytterby’s quarry by Swedish chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius in 1787. However, Yttrium could be purified in 1828 by German chemist Friedrich Wohler. The pure Yttrium metal is relatively stable in air in bulk form due to passivation of a protective yttrium oxide film that forms on the surface. Yttrium is always found in nature with other rare earth metals in rare-earth minerals and some uranium ores. Trivalent yttrium metal forms various inorganic compounds like yttrium oxides, yttrium halides, yttrium nitrates, etc. Although Yttrium could be highly toxic for humans and animals, its usage is really wide starting from strengthening alloys ending with treatment of cancers. Applications of Ytrium: Yttrium oxide (Y 2 O 3 ) or yttrium oxide...

Ytterbium(Yb) is the one of the lanthanide elements with an atomic number 70. Ytterbium is a bright, soft, silvery-white rare earth metal. Malleability and ductility are also two properties of ytterbium metal. Due to ytterbium is a little electropositive element, it slowly reacts water resulting in ytterbium hydroxide. Ytterbium reacts with all halogens. +2 oxidation state is the basis of the relative stability, but ytterbium, as other rare earth metals, usually has +3 oxidation state in most compounds. The discovery of ytterbium was made in Geneva, Switzerland by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marginac in 1878. The name comes from the name of Swiss village Ytterby. 1937 is year when ytterbium metal was purified by Klemm and Bonner by heating ytterbium chloride with potassium. In 1953 the pure ytterbium was produce at th Ames laboratory from which both physical and chemical properties could be measured. The commercial source of ytterbium is monazite mineral. However, ytte...

Europium(Eu) is one of the rare earth metals with atomic number 63. In 1886, French chemist Eugene-AntoleDemarcay identified europium by spectroscopic lines in “samarium”. In 1901, europium was successfully isolated by using repeated crystallizations of samarium magnesium nitrate. Afterwards, in 1904 French chemist Georges Urbain also succeeded in purifying europium by separating it from impure gadolinium using bismuth magnesium nitrate. Europium is named after continent Europe.Europium is a moderately hard, ductile and silvery-white metal that readily oxidizes in air and water. Europium has no significant biological role and is relatively non-toxic compared to other heavy metals. Europium is the one of the least abundant element in universe; nearly 5*10 -8 % of all matter in universe is europium. Europium has the second lowest melting point and the lowest density among all lanthanides. Europium is used in the printing of euro banknotes. It glows red under UV light and frogeries...

Thulium(Tm) is one the lanthanide elements with an atomic number 69. Thulium is a bright, malleable, soft and silvery-gray rare earth metal with the most common oxidation state +3 like other lanthanides. In water soluble thulium compounds form coordination complexes with nine water molecules. It slowly tarnishes in air resulting in thulium oxide, reacts with water forming thulium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. At room temperature thulium is readily reacts with all halogens, forms solutions containing the pale green Tm 3+  ions which exists as [Tm(OH) 9 ] 3+  when it dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid. Swedish chemist Per Teodor Cleve discovered thulium in 1879 by looking for impurities of other rare earth metals oxides. This discovery method was similar to another’s Swedish chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander. In 1911 thulium was firstly prepared as pure element by repeated bromate fractional crystallizations, which later got name “James Method”, by Charles James in New Hampshire. ...

Erbium(Er) is one of the lanthanide elements with an atomic number 68. Erbium is a bright, soft silvery white rare earth metal that slowly tarnishes in air and slowly reacts with water. Erbium dissolve in acids. Mostly in compounds erbium presents in its trivalent state(Er 3+ ). Pure erbium is metal that can be easily shaped meaning that it is a malleable chemical element. Erbium has no biological role, but there are thoughts that it is able to stimulate metabolism. As a chemical property, erbium is little electropositive element that reacts with water to form erbium hydroxide. In addition, erbium reacts with all halogens. In acids erbium exists as hydrated erbium([Er(OH 2 ) 9 ] 3+ ) which has a rose red color. Erbium was discovered by Swedish chemist Carl GustafMosander in 1843 together with another rare earth metal called ytterbium in Swedish village called Ytterby. However, the pure erbium was produce only in 1934 by W. Klemm and H. Bommer by reducing its anhydrous chloride with ...

Holmium(Ho) is the one of the lanthanides element with an atomic number 67. Holmium is a soft, bright, silvery-white rare earth metal which is malleable and ductile. Isolated holmium is stable in dry air at room temperature, but it easily reacts with water and corrodes readily. In addition, holmium burns when temperature of air is heated up forming holmium oxide (Ho 2 O 3 ). In most compounds holmium exists in its trivalent state. Holmium reacts with all halogens. The one who discovered holmium was Swedish chemist Per Theodor Cleve. The discovery was made in 1879, but it was 1911 when Swedish botanic Otto Holmberg isolated pure holmium. The French chemist Paul Lecoq de Boisbaudran could only isolate the holmium oxide in 1886 by fractional precipitation. The name holmium comes from the Greek word “Holmia” meaning the old name of Stockholm. Holmium is very reactive element that it almost not possible to find it as pure. Therefore, as other rare earth metals holmium is found in mineral...

Gadolinium(Gd) is the one of the lanthanide metals with an atomic number 64. Gadolinium is a bright, soft, silvery-white metal which is both ductile and malleable. Gadolinium was discovered in 1880 by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignacby using spectroscopy while an oxide preparation was made taken from mineral samarskite. Pure metallic gadolinium, nearly 99.3% pure, was first prepared by French chemist and engineer Felix Trombe in 1935. Pure gadolinium itself exhibits a large magneto caloric effect near its Curie temperature of 20 o C. Hence, it has sparked great interest in producing gadolinium alloys with a larger effect and tunable Curie temperature. One of the gadolinium isotopes,  157 Gd, has a highest thermal neutron capture cross section of any known stable element. Gadolinium is mainly extracted from monazite and bastnasite. Heating gadolinium oxide and salts with calcium at 1450 o C in argon atmosphere the needed gadolinium could be obtained. Sponge gadoli...

Terbium(Tb) is the one of the lanthanide element with an atomic number 63. Terbium is a silvery white earth metal that is malleable, ductile and soft enough to be cut with a knife. Terbium is an electropositive metal that reacts with water producing hydrogen gas. Terbium is never found as pure element in nature. However, terbium is found as component of many minerals like cerite, gadolinite, monazite, xenotime nad euxenite. Terbium was discovered by Swedish chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander as a separate elemental compound in 1843. Terbium was named after the village of Ytterby in Sweden as yttrium metal. Terbium was not purified until ion exchange technique was found. Most of terbium supply is used in green phosphorous. Nowadays, the richest commercial sources of terbium are the ion-adsorption clays of southern China. Only small amounts of terbium occur in bastnasite and monazite. Due to terbium’s rareness and its expensive prices, it has few commercial uses. Applications of Terbium...

Lanthanum(La) is the one of the rare earth element with atomic number 57. Lanthanum is a soft, ductile, slivery-white metal. Lanthanum was first found by in 1839 by Swedish chemist Cari Gustav Mosander in cerium nitrate as an impurity. From Ancient Greek “lanthenein” means hidden. Although Lanthanium classified as rare earth metal, it is the 28 th  most abundant element in Earth’s crust. Lanthanum makes up about quarter of lanthanide component in minerals such as monazite and bastnasite. In addition, Lanthanum is the 3 rd -most abundant of all lanthanides making up 39 mg/kg of the earth crust. The pure Lanthanum could be produced by electrolysis of anhydrous lanthanum chloride (LaCl 3 ) and sodium or potassium chloride (NaCl or KCl) at elevated temperatures. Even lanthanum has almost no commercial use, its alloys have a variety of applications.Lanthanum mixtures and compounds have numerous uses as catalysts, additive glass, carbon arc lamps for studio lights and projectors incr...

Scandium(Sc) is the one of the rare earth metals that has an atomic number 21. Scandium is soft, light and silvery-white d-block metallic element that slightly changes its color to yellow or pink when exposed to an air. The name “Scandium” comes from Latin word “Scanda” meaning Scandinavia. It was discovered by spectral analysis of minerals called euxenite and gadolinite, which are the rare minerals found in Scandinavia, in 1879 by Swedish chemist Lars F. Nilson. However, Scandium metal itself was produced only in 1937 by electrolysis molten scandium chloride. Scandium is susceptible to weathering and slowly dissolves in dilute acids. It does not react with nitric and hydrofluoric acids due to the formation of an impermeable passive layer. Although absences of reliable, secure, stable and long term production has limited commercial applications of scandium, it offers other benefits. As an example of these advantages is that only a few amount out of scandium strengthens aluminum a...

Lutetium(Lu) is the one the lanthanide elements with an atomic number 71. It is a silvery-white rare earth metal that slowly tarnishes in air. Lutetium is the densest and hardest metal among rare earth metals. Being the least abundant lanthanides, lutetium is more abundant on earth than silver or gold metals. In compounds lutetium exists in its trivalent state and its halides are colorless. Lutetium readily dissolves in acids forming solutions containing colorless lutetium complexes with 7-9 water molecules ([Lu(OH) 8.2 ] 3+ ). The discovery of this metal was made independently by several scientists in 1907. They were French chemist Georges Urbain, Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach and American chemist Charles James. However, due to Georges Urbain’s earlier publications the element was named by him as lutecium and today we got lutetium since in 1949 the spelling was changed. Mostly and as commercially lutetium is separated from mineral called monazite. It is never f...

Neodymium(Nd) is the one of the rare earth metals with atomic number 60. Neodymium is a soft, bright-silvery metal that tarnishes in air meaning it oxidizes in ordinary air. It takes a year for a centimeter-sized neodymium to be completely oxidized. Neodymium slowly reacts with cold water and quickly with hot water to form neodymium hydroxide. In addition, neodymium vigorously reacts with halogens to form neodymium halides and readily dissolves in dilute sulfuric acid to form +3 neodymium ions. Neodymium was discovered by Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach in Vienna in 1885 by separating it from a material known as didymium. Starting in the 1950s, high purity neodymium, above 99%, was primarily obtained through ion-exchange process from monazite. The neodymium itself could be also obtained by electrolyzing neodymium halide salts. Due to its unstable state in nature, neodymium almost does not exist as pure element. Hence, neodymium is mostly extracted from ores such as monazite an...

Samarium(Sm) is the one of lanthanide rare earth metals with atomic number 62. Samarium is bright, fairly hard, silvery white metal. Samarium is stable at room temperature, but samarium ignites in air at 150 o C or higher temperatures. Usually samarium assumes to be mostly at +3 oxidation state. Samarium is slightly toxic, but it has no significant biological role. Samarium was discovered in 1853 in Geneva, Switzerland, by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac. However, samarium was firstly isolated in 1879 by French chemist Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran from mineral called samarskite, the mineral which named after soviet after Colonel Samarskii. Samarium’s hardness and density are similar to zinc’s and has paramagnetic property at room temperature. Samarium is 40 th  most abundant element in Earth’s crust and 5 th  most abundant lanthanide with average concentration 8ppm. Samarium is not found free in nature. It’s found, like other rare earth metals, in min...

Praseodymium(Pr) is the one of rare earth metals with atomic number 59. Praseodymium is a soft, silvery, malleable and ductile metal valued for its magnetic, electrical, chemical and optical properties. Due to praseodymium high potential reactiveness it is very hard to find a pure praseodymium metal in nature. It slowly develops a green oxide coating. Praseodymium was found by separating didymium into two different elements, which one of them was praseodymium and other was neodymium, in 1885 by the Austrian chemist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach. The name praseodymium comes from the Greek prasinos meaning “green” and didymos “twin”. Praseodymium is stable only in aqueous solution with the 3+ oxidation state. Aqueous praseodymium ions are yellowish-green. Large amounts of praseodymium are found in monazite and bastnasite minerals. Praseodymium could be isolated by ion exchange and solvent extraction and through calcium reduction of anhydrous chloride or fluoride. The very first use of ...

Promethium(Pm) is a chemical element that classified as rare earth metal with atomic number 61. Promethium is a radioactive silver-white metal. Promethium’s instability made its research incomplete. It’s not possible to find a promethium on Earth surface, but it has been observed in the spectra of some stars in the galaxy of Andromeda. Promethium existence was proposed in 1902 by Czech chemist BohuslavBrauner. However, promethium was first produced and characterized in 1945 at Oak Ridge National Laboratory by the separation and analysis of the fission products of uranium fuel irradiated in a graphene reactor by Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin and Charles D. Coryell. Promethium gets its name from the Titan Prometheus in Greek mythology. There are two possible ways of producing natural promethium: rare decay of uranium which produces various isotopes of promethium, and rare decay of europium-151 that produces promethium-147. Hence, uranium is responsible for 560 g of promethi...

Borosilicate glass wafers are widely used for the process of anodic bonding of silicon with glass, so that the silicon’s thermal expansion is alike to these materials. Borosilicate glass wafers were developed for thin film electronic circuits, which require an extremely smooth surface with special electrical properties. The general application of thin and ultrathin Borosilicate glass wafers is an electronic packaging of optoelectronic conductors. Borosilicate glass wafers are preferred in many industries, e.g. research and biomedical industry, thanks to its affordability. Borosilicate glass wafers, in case of an explosion to high temperatures manages to remain clear and solid. The production applies the coating of Indium Tin Oxide onto the surface, that is transparent in a visible spectrum which reflects the infrared spectrum back at the light source. This coating is also electrically conductive (~50 ohms/square). Such technology is required for the protection of the insides of...